■80 CE
The Colosseum in Rome
The Colosseum in Rome, Italy, is a circular amphitheater capable of seating approximately 50,000 people.
The Colosseum also exhibits polygonal masonry with incised joints, both above and below ground. The founder of Rome, Romulus, as depicted in Roman mythology, reached the conclusion of emptiness.
Roman Concrete
The construction material used in the Colosseum is known as Roman concrete. While concrete in the 1900s had a lifespan of approximately 50 to 100 years, Roman concrete has demonstrated durability of over 2,000 years.
Buildings that utilize Roman concrete include the Baths of Caracalla, the Basilica of Maxentius, Trajan's Market, aqueducts and canals of the Roman water system, water bridges, water distribution facilities (castellum aquae), the Aurelian Walls (defensive walls surrounding the city of Rome), and the Pantheon. Some of these structures also exhibit polygonal masonry.
The Pantheon shares the same architectural design as the hand of Sabazios
Titus Baths
In 80 CE, during the reign of the 10th Roman Emperor, Titus, the Titus Baths were constructed. This structure also adheres to the proportions of the golden ratio. The construction took place in the same year as the Colosseum.
Megalithic Structures and Roman Concrete
The technology of Roman concrete gradually diminished over time. In the 1900s, concrete construction involved pouring and solidifying materials within formwork.
The Colosseum also featured polygonal masonry with incised joints, which suggests the possibility that this technique, along with Roman concrete, spread to various places as symbols of different religions. For example, the Egyptian pyramids could have been built using the same technique. This means that instead of dragging stones from distant locations, they created formwork on top of the pyramid and poured and solidified the materials there. The pyramids also exhibit polygonal masonry.
During this same era, in the ancient ruins of Baalbek in Lebanon, believed to have been built by the Roman Empire, there are colossal stones estimated to weigh between 1,200 and 2,000 tons. If we consider that these were also made with Roman concrete, it eliminates the question of how humans transported them. It is also possible that structures like the Temple of Bacchus in Baalbek were constructed using a similar method.
Various megalithic structures found around the world during this period, as well as those observed in the following centuries, indicate the potential use of similar techniques as Roman concrete. However, manual labor was also employed alongside these techniques.
■Around 90 CE
Statue of the Roman Empire
A statue of Aeon created during the reign of Domitian, the 11th emperor of the Roman Empire. Two snakes can be seen on both sides of his feet.
On the left is the Aeon of Bordeaux in France (175 CE - 225 CE), and the three on the right are Aeons of the Roman Empire in Italy (around 81 CE - 96 CE).
They depict Domitian, the 11th emperor of the Roman Empire.
Aeon, the same deity, is associated with various figures such as Mercury in Roman mythology, who holds a staff entwined by a single snake, Hermes in Greek mythology, who holds a staff with two snakes, and Thoth, the Egyptian god, resulting in the alchemical figure Hermes Trismegistus.
■Around 192 CE
The Ivory Tower of Vietnam
The Ivory Tower (Duong Long) of the Champa Kingdom in Vietnam (192 CE - 1832 CE) also features polygonal masonry.
■Around 212 CE
The Golden Ratio in the Baths of Caracalla in Rome
Emperor Caracalla, the 22nd emperor of the Roman Empire.
Location of the Baths of Caracalla.
The upper arrow on the map indicates the location of the Colosseum, while the lower arrow indicates the location of the Baths of Caracalla.
The Baths of Caracalla, constructed during the reign of Emperor Caracalla from 212 CE to 216 CE, were a monumental structure measuring approximately 225m in length, 185m in width, and 38.5m in height. It could accommodate around 2,000 to 3,000 bathing facilities. The Baths of Caracalla were built using Roman concrete and designed according to the proportions of the golden ratio.
The Baths of Caracalla were heated using the ancient Roman central heating system known as the "hypocaust." This system involved raising the floor on pillars to create a space, and hot air and smoke from the furnace were directed underneath the floor and into the walls, with exhaust vented near the roof. It was an early precursor to modern central heating systems.
The structure of the hypocaust system beneath the floor. Here, hot air is circulated.
■Around 275 CE
The Aurelian Walls of Rome
The Aurelian Walls were constructed in Rome from 271 CE to 275 CE during the reigns of Roman Emperors Aurelian and Probus. The walls encompassed a total circumference of 19 kilometers and featured towers at regular intervals of 29.6 meters. The walls were constructed using Roman concrete covered with brick. The San Sebastiano Gate and the Porta Tiburtina Gate of these walls also exhibit polygonal masonry.
On the left is Roman Emperor Aurelian (reigned 270 CE - 275 CE), and on the right is Roman Emperor Probus (reigned 276 CE - 282 CE).
In the map on the right, the upper location is the Colosseum, the middle location is the Baths of Caracalla, and the lower location is the San Sebastiano Gate.
In the map, the red line represents the Aurelian Walls, and the purple text indicates the gates of the walls. The Colosseum is located in the center.
The polygonal masonry of the San Sebastiano Gate.
The polygonal masonry on the backside of the San Sebastiano Gate.
The polygonal masonry of the Porta Tiburtina Gate.
The polygonal masonry adjacent to the Porta Tiburtina Gate.
The Aurelian Walls.
The emergence of keyhole-shaped burial mounds
Around 250 to 600 CE, keyhole-shaped burial mounds began to appear in Japan. There are over 4,800 of these mounds scattered throughout the country. The largest one is the Emperor Nintoku's Tomb in Osaka Prefecture, measuring approximately 486 meters in length.
Upon closer examination of these mounds, one can observe protrusions resembling arms in the trapezoidal portion. This same shape is a common symbol known as the "tanit." Additionally, the gradual elevation of the keyhole-shaped mounds corresponds to the frame of the "tanit" symbol.
Similar protrusions can be found in the Igenoyama Tumulus in Kyoto Prefecture.
They are also present in the left image of the Mitsujō Tumulus in Hiroshima Prefecture. However, in some cases like the Hashihaka Tumulus in Nara Prefecture (shown on the right), there may be no protrusions or only one side may have them.
In addition to the keyhole-shaped mounds, there are over 200 square-shaped keyhole mounds in Japan. The Daiyashiki No. 1 Tumulus in Fukushima Prefecture, with a length of approximately 83 meters, is an example of such a mound.
The Kochōshizuka Tumulus in Shizuoka Prefecture is another example, measuring 46 meters in length and appearing alongside the keyhole-shaped mounds.
The shape of these keyhole-shaped mounds also reflects the symbol of the sun and crescent moon found in the "tanit." Moreover, the gradual elevation of the keyhole-shaped mounds represents the concept of emptiness.
Inside the keyhole-shaped mounds, there are stone chambers constructed with massive stones, similar to dolmens, where the capstone serves as the ceiling.
Souroku Tumulus in Nagasaki Prefecture (100m).
Tsukabōzu Tumulus in Kumamoto Prefecture (43.3m).
Karabitsu Tumulus in Hiroshima Prefecture (48.6m).
Hebizuka Tumulus in Kyoto Prefecture (75m).
Hatimansha Tumulus No. 46 in Shiga Prefecture (21m).
Uwanarizuka Tumulus in Nara Prefecture (128m).
Maefutago Tumulus in Gunma Prefecture (94m)
Kannon-yama Tumulus in Gunma Prefecture (97m).
Circular mounds were also built during the Kofun period.
Symbols such as circles and double circles were also observed in Egyptian ornaments and decorations during the same era.
During that time, octagonal tumuli were also constructed.
The symbol of an octagon can be traced back to around 1120 BCE, where it was depicted in the upper-left corner of Babylonian stone tablets in the form of a star.
Although less common, hexagonal tumuli were also built.
The symbol of a hexagon can be seen in artifacts from the Indus Valley Civilization in India. The pose of various goddesses holding snakes with both hands can be found in the following Indian artifacts as well. Carvings of hexagons and hexagrams are present above and below, indicating the shared symbolism of hexagons and hexagrams.
Other types of tumuli, such as scallop-shaped tumuli, paired circular tumuli, paired square and circular tumuli, are also observed. These are also constructed using combinations of the symbols we have seen so far.
Haniwa
The Morishogunzuka Kofun in Nagano Prefecture is a 100-meter-long keyhole-shaped tumulus, where haniwa figurines can also be found. Haniwa refers to cylindrical clay figures depicting humans, animals, and other objects, which are buried around the tomb.
On the side of the haniwa in the image to the left, from the Morishogunzuka Kofun, there are zigzag patterns, creating numerous triangular holes. Similar zigzag patterns can be found on stone pillars at Göbekli Tepe in Turkey. This indicates that these haniwa are also designed with shared symbols.
There are various designs of haniwa.
Bronze mirrors have also been unearthed from ancient tumuli throughout Japan. The image below shows a mirror from the Kanisawa Kofun in Gunma Prefecture, which also features zigzag patterns around its circumference.
In this way, keyhole-shaped tumuli share design similarities with Tanit, have dolmen-like stone chambers, exhibit zigzag patterns on haniwa and bronze mirrors, and are constructed as symbols of emptiness.
Haji Clan
The Haji Clan is believed to be a lineage associated with the construction of tumuli and funerary rituals from around the 4th century CE to 550 CE, spanning from Izumo (around Shimane Prefecture) to Yamato (Nara Prefecture). The founder of the Haji Clan is said to be Nomi no Sukune, who, under the order of Emperor Suinin, engaged in taima no kehaya (a form of martial arts) and sumo wrestling, emerged victorious, and was granted the surname "Haji no Omi" and credited with inventing haniwa.
In the creation myth found in the Kojiki, which mentions Nomi no Sukune and the Haji Clan, "emptiness" is depicted as a chaos resembling a chicken's egg, bearing similarity to creation myths in various regions.
The tool called "nomi," used for processing the stone materials of tumulus chambers, is believed to be related to Nomi no Sukune's name.
There are depictions of transporting megaliths using sledges called "shura," and such shura have been found in the Mitsuzuka Kofun in Fujiidera City, Osaka Prefecture.
■315 CE
Arch of Constantine
The Arch of Constantine is located in Rome, Italy, next to the Colosseum. Its dimensions adhere to the golden ratio, equivalent to two golden sections.
In the photo on the right, the Arch of Constantine can be seen at the location indicated by the arrow above the Colosseum.
The golden ratio of the Arch of Constantine.
On the left is Constantine the Great, and on the right is Constantine's baptism.
■395 CE
Double-Headed Eagle, the Coat of Arms of the Byzantine Empire
The Roman Empire split into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire).
The coat of arms of the Byzantine Empire features a double-headed eagle. This symbol dates back to the Jiroft culture in Iran around 3000 BCE and was a shared symbol among various cultures.
■Around 400 CE
The cities of Tiahuanaco and Puma Punku in Bolivia
Symbols can also be found in the ancient cities located around Lake Titicaca in Bolivia, South America.
Polygonal masonry of Tiwanaku.
Next to Tiahuanaco is Puma Punku, which showcases massive H-shaped megaliths on the left and terraced architecture on the right, resembling the image below.
The H-shaped stones also serve as a common symbol and can be found in the stone pillars of Göbekli Tepe in Turkey.
The "H" symbol is also present in various other stone pillars at Göbekli Tepe.
The stepped configuration can be observed in the symbolic representations of Mesopotamia as well.
The surroundings of the symbol of Tanit, which includes symbols of a crescent moon and a sun, also feature stepped decorations.
The megaliths of Pumapunku exhibit a cross symbol and a small diamond-shaped design in the center.
In Tiwanaku, angular diamond symbols can also be found.
The symbol of a stepped pyramid, formed by halving an angular diamond, can be seen in artifacts from the Jiroft culture in Iran, dating back to around 3000 BCE.
In this context, one can also observe objects that have been carved out of stones, either in a round or square shape.
If such objects were made using concrete technology from the 1900s, a separator could be inserted into the mold before pouring the material into the mold. This way, when it solidifies, that part becomes a hole.
For these reasons, it is possible to consider that techniques like Roman concrete might have been transmitted to South America, where polygonal masonry with incised joints can be found.
The Gate of the Sun in Tiwanaku features the god Viracocha from the Inca Empire. Viracocha is considered the creator of civilization, a god who destroyed the people around Lake Titicaca with a great flood. During this event, Viracocha saved Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo to help spread civilization to the world. Viracocha taught people about agriculture, irrigation canal construction, maize cultivation, and livestock rearing. He was also a physician who healed many patients wherever he went.
Manco Capac is the first mythical king of the Inca civilization. Later portraits depict him with symbols that correspond to a lion, a bull with crescent moon-shaped horns, spiral-shaped earrings, a staff with a 16-pointed star, and birds. All of these symbols are consistent with common motifs. Manco Capac's father, Inti, is said to be the god of the sun and the rainbow. This also suggests that Inca mythology is composed of symbols representing emptiness.
The Ellora Caves in India
The Ellora Caves in India were constructed between the 4th and 10th centuries CE. They consist of rock-cut temples representing Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. 34 caves are carved into vertical cliffs.
On the left is Cave 10, the Chaitanya Cave, and on the right is Cave 16, the Kailasa Temple.
The sculptures of the Buddha.
The polygonal masonry at the Kailasa Temple.
The symbols of 16 petals and 8 petals found in the Ellora Caves.
The lion and elephant are also common symbols.
The Ellora Caves.
The Mogao Caves in China
The Mogao Caves in China consist of around 600 caves. Carved into the cliffs, they span 1,600 meters north to south and are believed to have been started in 355 CE. Over 2,400 Buddha statues are enshrined within these caves. Among them are colossal stone statues of the Buddha carved into the rock formations. The left image shows the Buddha statue in the Longmen Grottoes, known as the Vairocana Buddha, similar to the Great Buddha in Nara. It was also concluded to represent emptiness. On the right is a Buddha statue from the Yungang Grottoes.
The Yungang Grottoes feature statues of the Buddha, and symbols of aureoles can be seen behind the heads of the two statues. Additionally, the symbolic hand gesture of showing the palm of the hand, can be observed in the reliefs of Tanit, Buddha, and Shiva in India.
A similar hand symbol can be seen in the upper left of the Cylinder Seal Impression from Syria, dating back to around 1800 BCE (collection of the Ancient Orient Museum).
Shrine Guardian Dogs and Lion Statues Around the World
The Assyrian guardian deity Lamassu, from around 710 BCE, wears a triple crown.
The triple crown was also a common symbol observed in Mesopotamia.
At the Persian city of Persepolis in Iran, two Lamassu statues wearing triple crowns stand at the entrance.
From left to right: Shrine guardian dogs in Japanese shrines and lion statues in China's Forbidden City are also seen as pairs of two.
From left to right: Okinawa's Shisa, Korea's Hete, and Egypt's Sphinx.
In Turkey's Mount Nemrut, there are two lion statues. The divine statues include Zeus-Oromasdes (a fusion of Zeus and Ahura Mazda), Apollo-Mithras, Hercules, Tyche, and others.
In the Mycenaean civilization of Greece around 1450 BCE, the Lion Gate with two lion depictions and polygonal masonry can be seen.
The lion (lion) statue in Polonnaruwa, an island nation in southeastern Sri Lanka.
Borobudur Temple in Java, Indonesia. Lion statues and polygonal masonry.
Lion statues at Preah Vihear Temple on the border of Cambodia and Thailand.
Lion statues at Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
■Around 477 CE
Yapahuwa and Sigiriya in Sri Lanka
In Yapahuwa, Sri Lanka, two lion statues, polygonal masonry, and massive boulders can be seen.
At Sigiriya Rock, there are lion-shaped paws and enormous stone structures.
■Around 500 CE
Chibusan Kofun in Kumamoto Prefecture
Chibusan Kofun in Kumamoto Prefecture is a keyhole-shaped burial mound. It has a stone chamber with paintings.
Here, seven circles, double circles, and diamond patterns can be observed. These were common symbols.
The figure depicted here with three horns and raised hands is similar to Tanit. The Tanit figure on the left below also has raised hands. On the right is Tanit showing the palms of both hands.
The cross was also a common symbol, but the relief figure below is raising both hands while not showing the palms. In other words, the figure in Chibusan Kofun is making a common symbol gesture of raising both hands while not showing the palms.
The gesture of raising both hands can be seen in the image on the left, representing the goddess statue of Ishtar from Babylon, as well as the Ishtar and pot from around 1800 BCE on the right.
The seven stars can be seen on cylindrical seals from Mesopotamia, featuring crescents and winged discs, and in the upper right of the symbol table held by a lion.
The diamond pattern can be found in Göbekli Tepe and carvings of the Buddha.
The double circle is seen in Egyptian ornaments.
In conclusion, Chibusan Kofun is also constructed with common symbols.
Idera Kofun in Kumamoto Prefecture
Idera Kofun in Kumamoto Prefecture is a circular burial mound. It features polygonal masonry inside. It is estimated to have been built around 500 CE, and it shares a similar timeframe and proximity with Chibusan Kofun.
Ootohana Kofun Group in Kumamoto Prefecture
The Ooto Hana Kofun Group, also from around 500 CE, shares a similar timeframe and proximity with Chibusan Kofun and Idera Kofun. The minami-ichigou Kofun is a dolmen.
The interior of the stone chamber in minami 2gou Kofun has zigzag patterns drawn around the circle.
The image on the left depicts a circle with zigzag patterns, representing the interior of a stone chamber. On the right is a bronze mirror from the Otsukayama Kofun in Kyoto.
■Around 540 CE
Axum and Lalibela in Ethiopia
From around the 1st century CE to the 10th century CE, the Axum Kingdom prospered in northeastern Ethiopia.
In Axum, at the entrance of the underground tomb of King Ramhai and his family, we can observe polygonal masonry.
At the upper part of this polygonal masonry, there are carved rectangular terraces, similar to the design of Tanit's terraces.
Axum is also home to obelisks, which feature carved terraces as well.
One of these obelisks is an enormous megalith weighing around 500 tons.
The underground tomb of King Caleb also showcases polygonal masonry.
In the southern town of Lalibela, located in Axum, there are a series of rock-hewn Ethiopian Orthodox churches. The shape of the cross on the Church of Saint George resembles that of Tanit.
Tanit and the Cross.
On the left is the Church of Saint George, and on the right is the underground tomb of King Ramhai and his family.
On the left is St. Emmanuel Church.
On the left is Abba Libanos Church.
■Around 574 CE
Asuka-dera Temple
The lecture hall of Asuka-dera Temple, at the time of its construction, had precisely the shape of the golden ratio. In other words, it was a building that represented emptiness in Buddhist temples.
The lecture hall of Asuka-dera Temple has a shape that follows the golden ratio.
When placing the golden ratio in accordance with the outer foundation stones of the lecture hall, the smaller golden ratio proportions are formed within it, and the foundation stones are arranged accordingly.
By placing the golden ratio in accordance with the shape of the inner foundation stones, the widths and distances between the outer and inner stones are determined based on the proportions of the smaller golden ratio formed within.
■Around 590 CE
Taq-e Bostan, a Site in Western Iran
Carvings from the Sassanian Persian period at the archaeological site of Taq-e Bostan in Iran.
On top of the central figure's head, there is a crescent moon and a sun. The crown in their hand has two strings attached. All three figures have the sun on their heads.
The curves of the plants carved next to this rock cave exhibit the golden ratio. At the upper part of the cave, there is a symbol of a crescent moon.
■Around 593 CE
The First Unified Kingdom in Tibet
It is said that Songtsen Gampo established the first unified kingdom in Tibet known as Tubo and introduced Buddhism for the first time in Tibet. In the 14th-century Tibetan Buddhist historical text called the "Mirror of Kings," the concept of "emptiness" is depicted as an endless and void space. From the ten directions, winds arise and intertwine, creating a wheel-like formation called the "wheel of winds," from which various things emerge.
Mandala
In the context of Mahayana Buddhism, including Tibet and India, mandalas are depicted. The term "mandala" originally means "to obtain essence." It represents attaining the highest enlightenment, and the mandala itself expresses this truth. It is referred to as "perfectly endowed" or "complete" like a circular wheel (enrin), signifying a state of abundance without excess or deficiency. Mandalas systematically arrange and depict Buddhas, Tathagatas, Bodhisattvas, and protective deities. Many mandalas are represented using a combination of squares and circles, with four T-shaped gates depicted. The T-shape is also a common symbol. The mandala represents the concept of emptiness as well.
Mount Sumeru
According to the creation myth in Tibetan Buddhism, the emergence of the world from the empty space is described. In the center of the golden wheel that is formed, there naturally arises Mount Sumeru, composed of various precious gems, like the axle of a water wheel. The following diagram illustrates this explanation.
The pattern of Mount Sumeru, when viewed from above, follows the same composition as a mandala.
The conclusion reached was that the mandala symbolizes emptiness. In Buddhist temples, the elevated platform where Buddha statues and other objects are placed is called a "Sumidan", which derives from Mount Sumeru. The statues placed on top of it signify emptiness. In other words, both the statue and the platform symbolically represent emptiness.
Mount Kailash
Mount Kailash, located on the Tibetan Plateau, has an elevation of 6,656 meters.
In Hinduism, this mountain is revered as a lingam (phallic symbol), while in Tibetan Buddhism, it is regarded as the sacred site synonymous with Mount Sumeru. The lingam symbolizes Lord Shiva, and both are considered representations of emptiness. In the following image, along with the symbol of the lingam, common symbols such as the raised hand gesture and the crescent moon can be observed.
■Around 600 CE
Easter Island
Easter Island, known for its moai statues, also exhibits polygonal masonry.
One of the moai statues from Easter Island, displayed at the British Museum in the United Kingdom, features a golden spiral pattern on its chest, adhering to the golden ratio. This particular moai statue is estimated to date back to the years between 1000 and 1200 CE.
The torsos of the moai statues were found buried underground on the island, weighing approximately 100 tons each.
The people who arrived on Easter Island did not create their beliefs from scratch but brought their pre-existing beliefs from other places, which then underwent further unique transformations. This phenomenon is believed to have occurred in various locations worldwide after the Out of Africa migration.
Oodaira burial Mounds in Ibaraki Prefecture
Around 600 CE. In the Oodaira burial Mound Group in Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan, the largest keyhole-shaped mound called the "Koganezuka Kofun" has yielded a terracotta figurine of a "woman embracing an infant."
This depiction of a nursing goddess is similar to those found in various countries since ancient times.
The symbol of a nursing goddess, seen in the lower part of the hand of Sabazios, is also shared with other cultures.
The decorative wall paintings of the Torazuka Kofun, another keyhole-shaped mound located in Hitachinaka City, Ibaraki Prefecture, feature zigzag patterns at the top and two sets of double circles on the front. The following image shows a life-sized model of it.
From the Torazuka Kofun, artifacts such as weapons and horse equipment have also been excavated.
Onigawara (demon roof tiles)
On the roof of shrines and temples in Japan, there are decorative roof tiles called onigawara, which often feature golden ratio spiral patterns.
The onigawara tiles from the period between 600 CE and 800 CE exhibit golden ratio spiral patterns.
Late 6th century: Senbon of Harima, Hyogo Prefecture.
Late 6th century: Shindohaiji Temple ruins, Osaka Prefecture.
Late 6th century: Jikkoji Temple, Nara Prefecture.
Late 6th century: Jikkoji Temple, Nara Prefecture.
700-800: Musashi Kokubun-ji Temple, Tokyo.
The outline of the following onigawara tile also shows zigzag patterns.
Mid-8th century: Daian-ji Temple.
During the same era, onigawara tiles with golden ratio patterns can also be found in the Korean Peninsula. The surrounding area of the two following onigawara tiles also features double-circle symbols.
356-935: Unified Silla period in the Korean Peninsula.
600-800: Hwangnyongsa Temple in Gyeongju, Korea.
In the 900s, some onigawara tiles lack the golden ratio and display lower quality in terms of design and decoration.
From left to right: Shitenno-ji Temple in Osaka (around 960 CE), Todai-ji Temple's Hokkedo Hall in Nara (9th century).
Toba Rikyu Palace in Kyoto (late 12th century), Yashiroyamakoyou Ancient Kiln in Aichi (late 12th century, end of Heian period).
Ho'on-ji Temple in Hyogo (around 1336), Chokyu-ji Temple in Nara (1363).
In the 1400s, there are three-dimensional and intricately crafted onigawara tiles, some of which exhibit golden ratio patterns.
Horyu-ji Temple in Nara (1406), Horyu-ji Temple in Nara (1481).
■607 CE
Horyu-ji Temple in Nara Prefecture
Horyu-ji Temple is believed to have been founded in 607 CE by Prince Shotoku.
The roof tiles of the Wakakusa Garan at Horyu-ji Temple feature golden ratio decorations.
The width of the stairs in the Kondo (Golden Hall) is based on the ratio created by overlaying two golden ratios.
The inner columns of the Chumon (central gate) at Horyu-ji Temple are thicker at the bottom and gradually taper towards the top. This is known as entasis and can also be seen in the Parthenon temple in Greece.
The Kondo (Golden Hall) of Horyu-ji Temple enshrines three sets of statues: the Shaka Sanzon (Triad of Shakyamuni Buddha), the Yakushi Nyorai (Healing Buddha), and the Amida Sanzon (Triad of Amida Buddha). These statues also feature common symbols such as the golden ratio, halo, and the presentation of palms.
The Yakushi Nyorai statue in the Kondo (Golden Hall) exhibits the golden ratio.
The Shaka Sanzon (Triad of Shakyamuni Buddha) statues also feature the golden ratio.
The Yumedono Hall in the To-in Garan is an octagonal hall. The eight-pointed star is also a symbol found in Mesopotamia.
The swirling patterns on the statue of the Kusekannon (Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara) in the Yumedono Hall also adhere to the golden ratio, and their number is immense.
The image on the left depicts the Kusekannon (Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara) and the figures on the right side of the Shaka Sanzon (Triad of Shakyamuni Buddha) in the Kondo (Golden Hall). Above their heads, symbols of a crescent moon and the sun can be observed.
In the Goju-no-to (Five-storied Pagoda) of Horyuji Temple, there are statues called Jisha-zo, which include three types: Horse-Headed Form, Bird-Headed Form, and Rat-Headed Form. Although their faces resemble reptilian-human figures from Sumerian culture, upon closer examination, the beak and clothing patterns are identical to the Karura statues of Kofukuji Temple in Nara Prefecture. Kofukuji Temple was established around 669 CE, while Horyuji Temple was founded in 607 CE, making them nearly contemporaneous in both time and location.
From left to right: Sumerian reptilian-human figure, Bird-Headed Form of Horyuji Temple, Karura statue of Kofukuji Temple in Nara Prefecture.
Hatano Kawakatsu
Hatano Kawakatsu is said to have been a close associate of Prince Shotoku. The story of Hatano Kawakatsu being placed in a jar as an infant and being carried away by a river, only to be found and raised by someone, is a motif found in myths from other countries as well. For example, Moses, Zeus, and Rome's Romulus all appear in stories of being carried away by a river, leading to the conclusion of an empty symbol. These tales exhibit similarities to the story of Hatano Kawakatsu.
・Hata no kawano Kawakatsu from Japanese mythology:
During the reign of Emperor Kinmei, the upper reaches of the Yamato River in Nara Prefecture experienced a flood. In the midst of the flood, a single jar floated downstream and was found by someone near the torii gate of Miwa Shrine. Inside the jar was a beautiful child resembling a jade bead. It was believed that this child came down from heaven, so the news was immediately reported to the Imperial Palace. That night, the Emperor had a dream in which he received a divine message stating, "I am the reincarnation of Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China." As a result, the child was welcomed into the palace and raised as a courtier. As the child grew up, he displayed remarkable talents, and at the age of fifteen, he was given the surname "Qin" and called Hatano Kawakatsu, becoming highly valued.
・Moses from the Book of Exodus in the Old Testament:
The king of Egypt commanded the Hebrew midwives to kill any newborn Hebrew boys but allow the girls to live. In the midst of this, a young Hebrew man and woman got married. Both of them were from the tribe of Levi, and they eventually had a son. After his birth, the child was hidden and raised in secret for three months. However, it became increasingly difficult to conceal him, so he was placed in a papyrus basket and set adrift on the Nile River. By chance, the daughter of the king, who was bathing in the river, found him and entrusted his care to a Hebrew woman who was searching for him. Eventually, the child grew up and was officially adopted by the princess. Since he was drawn out of the water, the princess named him Moses, which means "drawn out."
・Sargon from Akkadian mythology:
The mother of Sargon secretly placed him in a basket or reed boat and set him adrift on a river. He was fortunately found by an irrigator named Akki, who raised him as a gardener. Over time, he gained the favor of Ishtar, embarked on a path of conquest, and conquered Dilmun.
・Romulus from Roman mythology (Founder of the Roman Kingdom):
Silvia, who was confined in a temple, gave birth to twins, Romulus and Remus, fathered by the god of war, Mars. However, their uncle, Amulius, ordered soldiers to kill the twins, as they could potentially inherit the throne. The soldiers, taking pity on the infants, placed them in a basket and secretly cast them into the river. The river deity, Tiberinus, rescued the twins from the flowing river and entrusted them to a she-wolf living by the riverbank. Eventually, a shepherd named Faustulus found the twins and, after consulting with his wife Acca Larentia, decided to adopt them. Unbeknownst to them, Faustulus' wife Acca Larentia was actually the goddess Ceres.
・Mahabharata, Book 1, from Indian mythology:
Once, Kunti pleased the sage Durvasa, who taught her a spell to summon gods. Out of curiosity, she invoked the Sun god. The Sun god granted her a son, but fearing the public eye, she cast away the newborn child into the river. The child was found and raised by a charioteer. This child grew up to be the warrior Karna.
・Perseus from Greek mythology:
Zeus transformed himself into a golden shower and secretly entered the chamber of Danae, who then gave birth to Perseus. Upon learning of this, Danae's husband, King Acrisius of Argos, unable to kill his daughter and grandson, enclosed them in a box and cast them into the river. Danae and her son drifted to the island of Seriphos, where they were rescued by the fisherman Dictys.
・Adonis from Greek mythology:
(not a story of being cast into a river, but similar in nature)
The gods transformed Myrrha into a myrrh tree. Eventually, a boar collided with the tree, causing it to split open, and Adonis was born from within. Aphrodite fell in love with Adonis. Later, Aphrodite placed the infant Adonis in a box and entrusted him to the care of the Queen of the Underworld, Persephone. Thus, Adonis was nurtured by Persephone for some time.
・Oedipus from Greek mythology:
(not a story of being cast into a river, but similar in nature)
King Laius of Thebes was warned by an oracle that his newly born son would pose a threat to his throne and life when he grew up. As a result, Laius attempted to have the child killed by a shepherd. However, the shepherd took pity on the infant and instead tied his feet together and left him hanging from a tree. The baby was found by a peasant who brought him to his master and mistress, where he was named Oedipus and raised as their own.
Similarly, Hatano Kawakatsu is a figure representing emptiness. Hatano Kawakatsu is considered the founder of Sarugaku, which later developed into Noh theater and Kyogen in the Meiji period.
■Around 650 CE
Yahatayama Kofun in Saitama Prefecture
The stone chamber of Yahatayama Kofun features polygonal masonry.
■Around 680 CE
Yakushiji Temple in Nara Prefecture
Yakushiji Temple, one of the Seven Great Temples of Nanto, also exhibits the golden ratio.
The floor plan of Yakushiji Temple's main hall precisely follows the proportions of the golden ratio. The width of the staircase is set according to the fourth golden ratio dimension within it.
The halo of the Sunlight Bodhisattva in the main hall of Yakushiji Temple also displays the swirling patterns of the golden ratio.
The demon tiles from the 8th-century initial construction period of Yakushiji Temple exhibit spiral patterns representing the golden ratio.
From the Muromachi period in 1336 CE to the end of the Edo period in 1868 CE, there are demon tiles without the presence of the golden ratio.
The decorative patterns on the heads of the figures depicted on the pedestal of the Yakushi Nyorai statue are intricate swirling motifs.
■681 CE
Oonodera Temple in Nara Prefecture
Oonodera Temple is said to have been established by En no Ozunu.
Here, there is a rock-carved statue of Maitreya Buddha called the Maitreya Cliff Carving, depicted with lines. The right side of the face and the waist area feature polygonal masonry.
■705 CE
Umayyad Mosque in Syria
The Umayyad Mosque is the oldest surviving mosque in the world, located in the capital city of Damascus, Syria. The golden ratio can also be observed here.
In Asuka Village, Nara Prefecture
Asuka Ishibutai Kofun, a site from around 700 CE, features megalithic construction similar to dolmens.
The Iwaya-yama Kofun in Asuka Village showcases polygonal masonry.
On the side of the entrance of Iwaya-yama Kofun, the lower stones are carved to fit the shape of the upper stones.
The Kitra Kofun and Takamatsu-zuka Kofun in Asuka Village also exhibit polygonal masonry on their walls.
Inside these two stone chambers, depictions of the four mythical beasts from Chinese mythology, Genbu (Black Tortoise), Seiryu (Azure Dragon), Suzaku (Vermilion Bird), and Byakko (White Tiger), can be found.
The turtle and snake of Genbu were common symbols.
The dragon was also a common symbol.
Suzaku (Vermilion Bird).
Byakko (White Tiger).
The Miyako-zuka Kofun in Asuka Village is a staircase pyramid.
■710 CE
Heijo Palace in Nara Prefecture
In 710 CE, Heijo-kyo became the capital of Japan.
Within Heijo-kyo, there is Heijo Palace (Heijo-kyu), also known as the Daidairi, which served as the residence of the emperor and consisted of the Inner Palace (Dairi) or Naitei and the Chodo-in for ceremonial functions. Additionally, the eastern end of Heijo Palace featured the To-in Garden, where banquets and other events were held.
Onigawara of Heijo Palace.
The following oni-gawara (demon roof tiles) featuring swirling patterns also exhibit the golden ratio. The phoenix (Houou) is also a common symbol, known as the Phoenix in the West.
Suzaku, one of the Four Divine Beasts in Chinese mythology, is also a symbol representing emptiness. Heijo-kyo, resembling China's Chang'an City, has its own Suzaku Gate. Presently known as Xi'an, the surrounding area of Chang'an City contained at least 29 pyramids.
Furthermore, the First Daigoku-den in Heijo-kyo displayed the Takamikura, the imperial throne used for the enthronement ceremony. The golden swirls on the upper part of the Takamikura also adhere to the golden ratio. Atop it sits the Phoenix, another shared symbol. The Takamikura, when viewed from above, forms an octagon, which was also a symbol observed in Mesopotamia and elsewhere.
On top of the Takamikura, both large and small mirrors are adorned. Mirrors are also regarded as symbols of emptiness, as mentioned later.
■713 CE
Leshan Giant Buddha in China
The Leshan Giant Buddha stands at a height of 60 meters and is located within a carved-out cliff that measures 71 meters in depth. The swirling pattern on the Buddha's head follows the golden ratio.
■720 CE
Nihon Shoki (The Chronicles of Japan) and Mirrors
The completion of the Nihon Shoki, also known as The Chronicles of Japan.
In the creation myth of the Nihon Shoki, the concept of "emptiness" is depicted as a chaotic state resembling a chicken's egg. At that time, a single deity, Kuninotokotachi no Mikoto, was born within the heavens and the earth. The Nihon Shoki introduces the appearance of the Yata no Kagami, the Eight-Span Mirror. This mirror was bestowed by Amaterasu Omikami, the Great Sun Goddess, to Ninigi no Mikoto, with a divine decree to enshrine and revere it as a representation of Amaterasu herself. This decree is referred to as the "Hōkyō Hōsai," or the Imperial Edict of the Sacred Mirror. The Yata no Kagami is preserved in both the Imperial Palace and the Grand Shrine of Ise, with the mirror at the Imperial Palace considered a replica of the one in the shrine. Due to such beliefs, mirrors, including those used in Japanese shrines and household altars, have been regarded as sacred objects.
Chinese and Japanese bronze mirrors display zigzag patterns and swirling motifs based on the golden ratio, signifying a shared symbolism. The following example is the "Hōkakukikushin-kyō," a square grid and compass mirror, which features four T-shaped designs. This design resembles a Mandala, which is also believed to represent emptiness. Therefore, mirrors, including bronze mirrors, serve as symbols of emptiness.
In the early 1st century BCE during the Former Han period, the "Hōkakukikushin-kyō" mirrors included mirror stands, known as "kyōka," featuring designs similar to those found in shrine mirrors. Thus, the Yata no Kagami, shrine mirrors, bronze mirrors, and mirror stands all represent emptiness.
Japanese Gardens
In the Nihon Shoki (The Chronicles of Japan), there are several articles related to gardens and Mount Sumeru (Shumisen). It is believed that gardens during the Kofun period were designed around stone mountains representing Mount Sumeru, which has been considered the center of the Buddhist world since ancient times. The early 7th century Empress Suiko also had a garden to the south of her palace with a representation of Mount Sumeru and a bridge called Kurehashi, which had a roof and railings (Nihon Shoki states: "She ordered the construction of a garden in the southern courtyard, replicating the form of Mount Sumeru and the Kurehashi bridge"). Similarly, Emperor Saimei in the late 7th century is said to have constructed Mount Sumeru and Kurehashi on the banks of a pond. Thus, Japanese gardens often feature the Mount Sumeru style or the Nine Mountains and Eight Seas (Kyūzan Hakka) concept. These two are essentially the same, with a central stone representing Mount Sumeru surrounded by rocks resembling eight mountains.
In the gardens of Kan'ō-ji Temple in Yamaguchi Prefecture and Manpuku-ji Temple in Shimane Prefecture, the rock at the top of the mountain represents Mount Sumeru, surrounded by eight rocks, creating the Nine Mountains and Eight Seas.
In the Ryōgin-tei garden of Ryōgen-in Temple in Kyoto, there is a long vertically oriented rock at the center, representing Mount Sumeru.
The conclusion was that the Mount Sumeru structure, which shares the same composition as a Mandala, represents emptiness. In other words, the Mount Sumeru style and the concept of the Nine Mountains and Eight Seas in Japanese gardens also symbolize emptiness.
Yamabushi, Judaism, and Tengu: Commonalities
The small black box worn on the head by the legendary creature known as Tengu in Japan is called a tokin, while Jewish individuals wear a black box called a tefillin on their heads. These boxes contain religious commandments (mitzvot). In Japan, yamabushi, practitioners of Shugendo who engage in mountain asceticism, wear a toked and blow a conch shell (horagai), while in Jewish ceremonies, individuals wear a tefillin (a small black box) on their heads and blow a shofar, a musical instrument made from a ram's horn.
Tengu in Japan also wear tokins.
Tengu are often depicted with high noses. Sarutahiko, who appears in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki as a descendant of the gods, is also depicted as a Tengu.
Yamabushi, Jewish individuals, and Tengu share the commonality of wearing a headpiece such as a tokun or tefillin. Additionally, Tengu are portrayed with wings, and similar imagery can be found in a statue of Aeon from ancient Rome around the 90s CE. Aeon is depicted with wings, a snake on the forehead, and serves as the prototype for the tefillin. In the story of Adam and Eve in the Book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible, the snake tempts Eve with the fruit from the Tree of Knowledge in the Garden of Eden. Thus, the snake represents wisdom, and the tokun or tefillin symbolize the snake of emptiness on the forehead.
The snake on Aeon's forehead.
Aeon is depicted holding a long staff, and yamabushi also carry a long staff called a kongōzue.
Kongōzue(The vajra staff) of the yamabushi.
The kongōzue is the same as the kongōsho, which is held by the deity Shukongoshin. The kongōsho can also be seen on Aeon's chest, serving as a common symbol of emptiness.
There are also Tengu known as karasu-tengu, which have bird-like faces. These Tengu have their origins in the Buddhist guardian deity Karura, derived from Indian mythology's Garuda.
From left to right: Karasu Tengu, Tengu from Takao-san Yakuo-in Temple, and Garuda statue from Sanjusangendo.
In summary, Jewish individuals, yamabushi, Sarutahiko, Tengu, karasu-tengu, Karura, and Garuda all share the common symbol of emptiness.
■752 CE
Todai-ji Temple in Nara
In Nara Prefecture, at Todai-ji Temple, common symbols can also be observed. The temple has been rebuilt twice after being destroyed, once during the Kamakura period and again during the Edo period.
The main hall, where the Great Buddha resides, is a reconstruction and differs in size from its original form.
The grounds on the left and right in front of the main hall are believed to reflect the original size of the temple, following the golden ratio.
At Todai-ji Temple, the onigawara (demon roof tiles) on the roof feature a zigzag pattern symbol on their surfaces.
The Great Buddha of Nara showcases a halo (kohai), a swirling pattern based on the golden ratio, and a hand gesture revealing the palm. It was concluded that this Great Buddha also represents emptiness.
The swirling pattern on the head of the Great Buddha in Nara.
Next to the Great Buddha in Nara stands the statue of Kokuzo Bosatsu (Bodhisattva of Infinite Space). It also features a halo, a swirling pattern based on the golden ratio, and a hand gesture revealing the palm.
The statues of Tamonten and Kōmokuten, located in Todai-ji Temple's main hall, also exhibit swirling patterns based on the golden ratio. These statues stand on both sides of the entrance, holding tridents, and are composed of shared symbols.
The bronze octagonal lantern (kondō hakkaku tōrō) in front of the Great Buddha Hall also showcases the golden ratio.。
The Great Buddha of Nara, Dainichi Nyorai, and Amaterasu Omikami
The Great Buddha of Kamakura is known as Amida Nyorai and represents one of the Five Great Wisdom Kings in Buddhism, also identified as Da'itoku Myō-ō. It is associated with the Vajra Pestle as well, symbolizing emptiness. In other words, the Great Buddha of Kamakura also signifies nothingness.
The Great Buddha of Nara is referred to as Vairocana Buddha (Birushana Butsu) and is considered equivalent to Dainichi Nyorai in Esoteric Buddhism. The deity Fudō Myō-ō, an incarnation of Dainichi Nyorai, also wields the Vajra Pestle. Thus, both the Great Buddha of Kamakura and the Great Buddha of Nara represent emptiness.
Dainichi Nyorai is regarded as the essence of all Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, and is identified with Amaterasu Ōmikami. This implies that all deities in Buddhism point to the concept of emptiness. Amaterasu Ōmikami is a deity in Japanese mythology and is worshipped as a Shinto deity by the imperial family. The Ise Grand Shrine is a famous Shinto shrine associated with Amaterasu Ōmikami.
■759 CE
Toshodai-ji Temple in Nara Prefecture
Toshodai-ji Temple is said to have been founded by Ganjin (Jianzhen).
The plan view of the main hall, when seen from above, precisely follows the golden ratio. Within that golden ratio, the width of the stairs is set to create a fourth smaller golden ratio.
The wooden framework of this main hall is constructed in a complex structure.
The pillars of Toshodai-ji Temple's main hall exhibit the same entasis as the columns of the Parthenon in Greece.
The demon roof tiles of Toshodai-ji Temple feature a spiral pattern based on the golden ratio.
The zigzag pattern on the frames also follows the golden ratio.
Within the wooden statues of the Four Heavenly Kings at Toshodai-ji Temple, there are also spiral patterns based on the golden ratio.
Jikokuten of the Four Heavenly Kings.
Zōchōten Exhibition of the Four Heavenly Kings.
Kōmoku-ten of Shitennō-ji Temple.
Kojiki
The Kojiki, compiled by Ō no Yasumaro under the order of Emperor Tenmu in the 40th year of his reign (712 CE), contains stories up to the 33rd Emperor, Empress Suiko. Ō no Yasumaro is also believed to have been involved in the compilation of the Nihon Shoki.
In the first volume of the Kojiki, the creation of heaven and earth is described as follows: "When heaven and earth first appeared, the names of the gods who emerged in Takamagahara were the deity Ame no Minakanushi, followed by the deity Takamimusubi, and then Kamimusubi." Takamagahara is introduced as the place where the gods were born and came into existence at the time of the appearance of heaven and earth. In other words, Takamagahara, where the gods are born, represents emptiness and has existed since the emergence of heaven and earth.
The Kojiki also includes an account of the creation of the land by Izanagi and Izanami, where they stood on the bridge of heaven and stirred the chaos with a spear, creating islands. The first island they gave birth to was Awaji Island, followed by Shikoku, then Oki Island, and subsequently Kyushu, Iki, Tsushima, and Sado, until finally Honshu was born. These eight islands together are called the "Great Eight Island Country" (Ōyashimaguni), an alternate name for Japan.
Similar creation myths involving stirring and forming the earth can be found in the Aboriginal mythology of Australia and the creation myth of Mongolia.
Five Elements and Four Elemental Principles
In the mythology of the Fula people in West Africa, it is believed that at the beginning, there was only a giant droplet of milk, and then the creator god, Doondari, arrived and formed stones. The stones created iron, and iron created fire. Fire created water, and water created air. In the Mayan civilization, Kukulkan (also known as Gucumatz) is associated with the four elements: fire, water, earth, and air (wind). In Western philosophy, the theory of the four elements states that the material world is composed of four elements: fire, air, water, and earth. The sacred Mount Meru in ancient Indian and Tibetan Buddhism is depicted as a massive mountain rising on a disc made of the four elements: earth, water, fire, and wind. In China, from the Taiji (the "ultimateless") emerged the concepts of yin and yang, which further gave rise to the theory of the five elements, stating that all things are composed of five elemental categories: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water.
Summarizing these beliefs, the following can be observed. The similarity in the expressions is attributed to their shared origins.
Fire, water, air, iron, stone (West Africa)
Fire, water, air (wind), earth (Mayan civilization)
Fire, water, air (wind), earth (Western philosophy)
Fire, water, wind, earth (Tibetan Buddhism)
Fire, water, wood, earth, metal (Chinese Five Elements)
■767 CE
Nikko Toshogu Shrine in Tochigi Prefecture
The Nikko Toshogu Shrine is considered the head shrine of all Toshogu Shrines in Japan. Here, we can also observe polygonal masonry and the golden ratio spiral patterns.
Polygonal masonry.
The founder of Nikkozan (Mount Nikko), the origin of this shrine, is said to be Shodo Shonin, born in Tochigi Prefecture in 735 CE. When Shodo Shonin attempted to open Nikkozan, he encountered a rushing torrent of the Daiya River. Seeking divine protection, he was visited by Shinsha-Ō, who released two snakes, one red and one blue. From their backs, mountain sedgegrass (Yamasuge) grew, and the snakes intertwined on both sides of the Daiya River, forming a beautiful bridge resembling a rainbow. This bridge is known as the Shin-kyo or the Snake Bridge of Yamasuge.
In other words, there are common elements in Nikko, such as the two snakes, a rainbow, polygonal masonry, and golden ratio spiral patterns.
■Around 780 CE
Southeast Asia, Java Island, Borobudur Temple
At the Borobudur Temple, we can also see polygonal masonry and lion statues.
Polygonal masonry.
When viewed from above, the Borobudur Temple is designed in the shape of a mandala, representing emptiness itself.
Seu Temple and Prambanan Temple Complex in Indonesia
Seu Temple (late 8th century) and the Prambanan Temple Complex (around 890 CE) in Java, Indonesia, are Hindu temples that are arranged in the pattern of a mandala when viewed from the sky. Thus, the entire temple complex represents emptiness.
Seu Temple.
Prambanan Temple Complex.
■794 CE
Heian-kyō in Kyoto
Under Emperor Kammu, Heian-kyō became the capital of Japan. It served as the capital until 1869 when the Meiji government moved its base to Tokyo. Here, we can find Suzaku Avenue (Suzaku Ōji) and Suzaku Gate (Suzaku Mon).
In Heian-kyō, similar to Heijo-kyō, there is a golden ratio demon roof tile on the Dai-dairi, also known as the Heian Palace.
Statues of a unicorn and a lion at the Kiyosumi-dono in the Kyoto Imperial Palace.
The Kyoto Imperial Palace (Gosho) served as the residence for successive emperors and the site for ceremonies and official duties from 1392 to 1869.
The red square on the left represents the Imperial Palace, and the red circle on the right represents the Kyoto Imperial Palace.
The Kyoto Imperial Palace is located within the Kyoto Imperial Park (Gyoen). The grounds of the Kyoto Imperial Park are sized in proportions of three golden ratios. Some paths are also determined by the golden ratio. The central axis of the palace is aligned with the golden ratio line.
Symbol of the Emperor
The symbol of the Emperor is the chrysanthemum crest (kikukamon) with 16 petals, which is the same as the symbol of the divine arm with 16 petals holding the handbag in Mesopotamian mythology.
In addition, the hand of Ahura Mazda, depicted in Zoroastrianism wall paintings, features a crown and a scepter. The crown has two cords hanging down from a circular base. The crown and scepter are also seen in the Emperor's enthronement ceremony. The ceremonial headdress called "eigasa" in the Heian period consisted of two separate parts hanging down on the left and right shoulders. It later transitioned into a single piece. This signifies the common symbol of emptiness represented by the Emperor's crown and scepter.
■796 CE
To-ji Temple
The construction of two temples, To-ji (East Temple) and Sai-ji (West Temple), was planned on the east and west sides of Rajo-mon, the main gate of Heian-kyo (the capital city of Heian period). Kukai (also known as Kobo Daishi) is said to have been granted To-ji by Emperor Saga, and it became a place of practice for Esoteric Buddhism.
The Yakushi Nyorai statue enshrined in the Kondo (Main Hall) also features golden spiral patterns. It is said that this statue of Yakushi Nyorai was created by the Buddhist sculptor Koshō in 1603 CE.
The Kondo was once destroyed by fire in 1486 CE, and its reconstruction was also carried out by Koshō.
The Kodo (Lecture Hall) of To-ji Temple houses 21 statues known as the Three-Dimensional Mandala. It is believed that Kukai completed the construction of this hall in 839 CE, but it also suffered fire damage in 1486 CE.
The Kongo Hōbosatsu Za statue in the Kodo also exhibits golden spiral patterns.
The central statue of Dainichi Nyorai in this Three-Dimensional Mandala also displays golden spiral patterns.
■Around 800 CE
Chand Baori Stepwell in India
Chand Baori is a stepwell with a total of 3,500 steps and 13 levels, reaching a depth of approximately 30 meters. Here, too, polygonal masonry can be observed.
The numerous triangular-shaped steps of Chand Baori serve as a symbol of step pyramids, similar to those found in the Jiroft culture of Iran.
The Stone Chapel of Our Lady of the Rock, Portugal
The colossal stones and polygonal masonry of the Christian churches in Portugal are distinctive features.
Polygonal masonry.
The Symbolism of Double-Headed Eagles in the Holy Roman Empire and Europe
The Roman Empire's flag, starting from 27 BCE, featured a single eagle design. After the division of the Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire utilized the symbol of a double-headed eagle from 395 CE onwards. The Holy Roman Empire, which represented the revival of the ancient Western Roman Empire that fell around 480 CE and was restored in 800 CE, also employed the double-headed eagle in its flags and coats of arms, enduring from 800 CE to 1806 CE. This empire encompassed Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, and northern Italy.
The double-headed eagle symbol was also present in the Jiroft culture of Iran.
The double-headed eagle became the coat of arms for the Holy Roman Empire and the House of Habsburg, and it was inherited by the Austrian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, and German Empire, among others. Through strategic marriages, the House of Habsburg became a lineage of archdukes, kings, and emperors, ruling over territories such as the Austrian Archduchy, Kingdom of Spain, Kingdom of Naples, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Kingdom of Bohemia, and Kingdom of Hungary until the early 20th century. In 1472 CE, the symbol was adopted by the Russian Empire, and in the 16th century, it became part of the coat of arms of Spain.
After the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire around 1453 CE, the symbol of the double-headed eagle was inherited by the Greek Orthodox Church, the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, Serbia, Albania, and other regions.
Bamiyan Valley, Afghanistan
The statues in Bamiyan Valley consist of the Western Buddha, standing at 55 meters, and the Eastern Buddha, standing at 38 meters. The style of the rock-cut caves here is similar to the Maitreya Cliff Carvings at Oonodera Temple in Nara Prefecture, Japan.
On the left is Oonodera Temple, and on the right are three rock-cut cave formations in the Bamiyan Valley.
■Around 890 CE
Preah Vihear Temple, Cambodia
Preah Vihear Temple is a Hindu temple known for its polygonal masonry and lion statues.
The lion statues at Preah Vihear Temple.
■944 CE
Phanom Rung Historical Park in Thailand
There is also polygonal masonry present at Phanom Rung Historical Park.
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